Learning Strategy Training

Learning Strategy Training

Learning strategy training aims to equip the learners with the skills of ‘good language learners’ as described by Rubin (cited in Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 159).Essentially, through strategy training learners become more independent and responsible for their own learning.

Definitions of Learning Strategies

Different ‘learning strategies’ (LS) definitions have been used in second or foreign language learning context. Tarone (1983: 67) defined LS as the attempts to develop “linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to incorporate these into one's interlanguage competence.” Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies broadly as “behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning” which are “intended to influence the learner's encoding process” (p. 315). Later, Mayer (1988), more specifically, defined LS as “behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information” (p. 11). Weinstein et al. (1988) outlined LS in more detail: “learning strategies are considered to be any behaviours or thoughts that facilitate encoding in such a way that knowledge integration and retrieval are enhanced. More specifically, these thoughts and behaviours constitute organized plans of action designed to achieve a goal. Examples of learning strategies include actively rehearsing, summarizing, paraphrasing, imaging, elaborating, and outlining” (p. 291). Rubin (1987) later defined LS as those strategies that “contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly” (p. 22). Language Learning strategies (LLS) for Oxford, (1992/1993: 18) are “specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalisation, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability.”

The definitions referred to above illustrate that there has been a clear change of how scholars in the field see learning strategies. They began to focus on the product of leaning strategies, particularly in the linguistic or sociolinguistic competence aspects; later on, they meant to pay more consideration to the learning process itself and this appears from how language learning strategies are classified.

The importance of language learning strategies for students

The goal of strategy use is to “affect the learner's motivational or affective state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organises, or interacts new knowledge” (Weinstein and Mayer 1986: 315). According to Oxford et al (1990), the language learner can benefit from strategy training which seeks to encourage greater responsibility and self-direction in the learner.

Within the recent trends in foreign/second language teaching the ‘Communicative Approach’ is seen as the suitable way for learners to develop their communicative competence. The language learning strategies (LLS) can help them do this. However, we should notice the differences between LLS and communicative strategies. Communicative strategies are intentionally and consciously used by speakers to cope with the difficulties in communicating in a foreign/second language. Language learning strategies, on the other hand, are the strategies the learners use to develop their learning strategies, in general, in the target language, and communication strategies are just one type of LLS. Oxford (1990b: 1) states that language learning strategies are “especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence.”

The use of appropriate language learning strategies often results in improved proficiency or overall achievement in specific skill area (Thompson and Rubin, 1996; Oxford et al., 1993).

The basic characteristics of LLS:

·        Learning strategies are a set of processes and a routine for organising those processes (Garner, 1988: 64).

·        LLS allow learners to become more self-directed (Oxford, 1990b: 9). They are a desire for control and autonomy of learning on the part of the learner (Oxford, 1990a; Wenden and Rubin, 1987).

·        Only conscious strategies are LLS, and there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner (Cohen, 1990).

·        They may be visible as they are “specific actions or techniques” (Green and Oxford, 1995: 262) or invisible as they can involve “mental processing” (Williams and Burden, 1997: 133).

·        Learning strategies use is determined at a metacognitive level (Garner, 1988: 64).

·        LLS can be taught to students (Oxford, 1990b: 9).

·        Learning strategies are under the active, strategic control of the student while in use (Garner, 1988: 64).

·        Learning strategies have certain broad dimensions relating to their functions, their generalizability across texts, the scope of the learning task, and the extent to which they demand cognitive effort (Dansereau, 1985).

·        Transfer of a strategy from one language to another or from a language skill to another is a related to the goal of LLS (Pearson, 1988; Skehan, 1989).

The classification framework of learning strategies

Language learning strategies can be classified according to whether they are cognitive, metacognitive, affective, or social (Chamot, 1987; Oxford, 1990b). Alternative taxonomies have been offered by O’Malley and Chamot (1990), O’Malley et al., (1985a), Wenden and Rubin, (1987), Stern (1992), and Ellis (1994).

Six major groups of foreign or second language (L2) learning strategies have been identified by Oxford (1990b).

1.     Cognitive strategies  are mental strategies the learner uses to make sense of learning. They enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways. When manipulating cognitive strategies, the learner is involved in practicing, receiving and sending messages, reasoning, analysing, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally.

2.      Metacognitive strategies are essential for the leaner to plan, monitor and evaluate learning. They are employed for managing the learning process. Learners are required to centre, arrange, plan and evaluate their learning.

3.     Memory-related strategies are used for storage of information. They help learners link one second or foreign language item or concept with another but do not necessarily involve deep understanding. Learners are to be given the chance for linking mental images, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing action.

4.     Compensatory strategies help the learner make up for missing knowledge. Examples of such strategies include guessing from the context in listening and reading, using synonyms and “talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing and strictly for speaking, and using gestures or pause words.

5.     Affective strategies are concerned with the learner’s emotional needs such as identifying one’s mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive self-talk.

6.     Social strategies help the learner work with others and understand the target culture. They lead to more interaction with the target language through cooperating with others, empathizing with others, asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms.