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Movie maker MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES by Indah Tri Astuti

Participatory Approach

Participatory Approach

Participatory theory, vision or framework is a conceptual framework which attempts to bridge the subject-object distinction. According to Jorge Ferrer, "the kernel of this participatory vision is a turn from intra-subjective experiences to participatory events in our understanding of transpersonal and spiritual phenomena.

A participatory epistemology is a theory of knowledge which holds that meaning is enacted through the participation of the human mind with the world. Originally proposed by Goethe, it has been discussed extensively by cultural historian Richard Tarnas.

In a participatory epistemology, meaning is neither solely objective nor solely subjective. That is to say that meaning is not, per modern or positivist views, found solely outside of the human mind, in the objective world, waiting to be discovered. Nor, per postmodern or constructivist views, is meaning simply constructed or projected onto an inherently meaningless world by the subjective human mind. Rather, Tarnas argues that meaning is enacted through the dialectical participation of the human mind with the larger meaning of the cosmos. Thus meaning exists in potential in the cosmos, but must be articulated by human consciousness before it exists in actuality.

Participatory approach started in secondary schools in 2005, but it began before that time in the name of communicative language teaching (CLT). This CLT is actually participatory approach in which students have the opportunity to participate in different activities such as pair work, group work, peer work, role play, picture interpretation, expert jigsaw, audio-lingual, extensive reading, and aural-oral activities, skimming, scanning and so on. As a result, they can get a chance to display their creative power that helps to make them more confident, and they can remove their learning related fear.

Knowledge is socially constructed and, in fact, all of our learning is reconstructed on our past experiences. When we learn anything the new knowledge is amassed in our memory store. Development of knowledge depends on the quantity and quality of social interactions where surroundings and socio-economic status of the interacting partners influence the construction and reconstructions of knowledge.

From the above discussion it is clear that participatory approach is an effective method in education. However, the effectiveness of any method depends mainly on the classroom performances of the teachers. It does appear that whenever the techniques of the participatory approach are intelligently applied in the classroom, positive result is obvious. By using this method the students' understanding of a topic becomes direct and long lasting. Students can use the knowledge thus gathered to solve the problems they face in their personal and social life.

Learning Strategy Training

Learning Strategy Training

Learning strategy training aims to equip the learners with the skills of ‘good language learners’ as described by Rubin (cited in Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 159).Essentially, through strategy training learners become more independent and responsible for their own learning.

Definitions of Learning Strategies

Different ‘learning strategies’ (LS) definitions have been used in second or foreign language learning context. Tarone (1983: 67) defined LS as the attempts to develop “linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to incorporate these into one's interlanguage competence.” Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies broadly as “behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning” which are “intended to influence the learner's encoding process” (p. 315). Later, Mayer (1988), more specifically, defined LS as “behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information” (p. 11). Weinstein et al. (1988) outlined LS in more detail: “learning strategies are considered to be any behaviours or thoughts that facilitate encoding in such a way that knowledge integration and retrieval are enhanced. More specifically, these thoughts and behaviours constitute organized plans of action designed to achieve a goal. Examples of learning strategies include actively rehearsing, summarizing, paraphrasing, imaging, elaborating, and outlining” (p. 291). Rubin (1987) later defined LS as those strategies that “contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly” (p. 22). Language Learning strategies (LLS) for Oxford, (1992/1993: 18) are “specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalisation, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability.”

The definitions referred to above illustrate that there has been a clear change of how scholars in the field see learning strategies. They began to focus on the product of leaning strategies, particularly in the linguistic or sociolinguistic competence aspects; later on, they meant to pay more consideration to the learning process itself and this appears from how language learning strategies are classified.

The importance of language learning strategies for students

The goal of strategy use is to “affect the learner's motivational or affective state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organises, or interacts new knowledge” (Weinstein and Mayer 1986: 315). According to Oxford et al (1990), the language learner can benefit from strategy training which seeks to encourage greater responsibility and self-direction in the learner.

Within the recent trends in foreign/second language teaching the ‘Communicative Approach’ is seen as the suitable way for learners to develop their communicative competence. The language learning strategies (LLS) can help them do this. However, we should notice the differences between LLS and communicative strategies. Communicative strategies are intentionally and consciously used by speakers to cope with the difficulties in communicating in a foreign/second language. Language learning strategies, on the other hand, are the strategies the learners use to develop their learning strategies, in general, in the target language, and communication strategies are just one type of LLS. Oxford (1990b: 1) states that language learning strategies are “especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence.”

The use of appropriate language learning strategies often results in improved proficiency or overall achievement in specific skill area (Thompson and Rubin, 1996; Oxford et al., 1993).

The basic characteristics of LLS:

·        Learning strategies are a set of processes and a routine for organising those processes (Garner, 1988: 64).

·        LLS allow learners to become more self-directed (Oxford, 1990b: 9). They are a desire for control and autonomy of learning on the part of the learner (Oxford, 1990a; Wenden and Rubin, 1987).

·        Only conscious strategies are LLS, and there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner (Cohen, 1990).

·        They may be visible as they are “specific actions or techniques” (Green and Oxford, 1995: 262) or invisible as they can involve “mental processing” (Williams and Burden, 1997: 133).

·        Learning strategies use is determined at a metacognitive level (Garner, 1988: 64).

·        LLS can be taught to students (Oxford, 1990b: 9).

·        Learning strategies are under the active, strategic control of the student while in use (Garner, 1988: 64).

·        Learning strategies have certain broad dimensions relating to their functions, their generalizability across texts, the scope of the learning task, and the extent to which they demand cognitive effort (Dansereau, 1985).

·        Transfer of a strategy from one language to another or from a language skill to another is a related to the goal of LLS (Pearson, 1988; Skehan, 1989).

The classification framework of learning strategies

Language learning strategies can be classified according to whether they are cognitive, metacognitive, affective, or social (Chamot, 1987; Oxford, 1990b). Alternative taxonomies have been offered by O’Malley and Chamot (1990), O’Malley et al., (1985a), Wenden and Rubin, (1987), Stern (1992), and Ellis (1994).

Six major groups of foreign or second language (L2) learning strategies have been identified by Oxford (1990b).

1.     Cognitive strategies  are mental strategies the learner uses to make sense of learning. They enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways. When manipulating cognitive strategies, the learner is involved in practicing, receiving and sending messages, reasoning, analysing, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally.

2.      Metacognitive strategies are essential for the leaner to plan, monitor and evaluate learning. They are employed for managing the learning process. Learners are required to centre, arrange, plan and evaluate their learning.

3.     Memory-related strategies are used for storage of information. They help learners link one second or foreign language item or concept with another but do not necessarily involve deep understanding. Learners are to be given the chance for linking mental images, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing action.

4.     Compensatory strategies help the learner make up for missing knowledge. Examples of such strategies include guessing from the context in listening and reading, using synonyms and “talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing and strictly for speaking, and using gestures or pause words.

5.     Affective strategies are concerned with the learner’s emotional needs such as identifying one’s mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive self-talk.

6.     Social strategies help the learner work with others and understand the target culture. They lead to more interaction with the target language through cooperating with others, empathizing with others, asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms.

Contextual Teaching Learning

Contextual Teaching Learning

Contextual Teaching Learning (CTL) adalah konsep belajar yang membantu guru mengaitkan antara materi yang diajarkan dengan situasi dunia nyata siswa yang mendorong siswa membuat hubungan antara pengetahuan yang dimilikinya dengan penerapannya dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Pengetahuan dan keterampilan siswa dapat diperoleh dari usaha siswa mengkontruksikan sendiri pengetahuan dan keterampilan baru ketika ia belajar.
Pembelajaran CTL melibatkan tujuh komponen utama pembelajaran produktif yakni, konstruktivisme, bertanya (questioning), menemukan (Inquiry), masyarakat belajar (learning komunity), pemodelan (modeling), dan penilaian sebenarnya (autentic assement).

 

Landasan Filosofi Contextual Teaching Learning (CTL)

Landasan filosofi CTL adalah kontruktivisme, yaitu filosofi belajar yang menekankan bahwa belajar tidak hanya sekedar menghafal, siswa harus mengkontruksikan pengetahuan dibenak mereka sendiri. Bahwa pengetahuan tidak dapat dipisahkan menjadi fakta-fakta atau proposisi yang terpisah, tetapi mencerminkan keterampilan yang dapat diterapkan . Konstruktivisme berakar pada filsafat pragmatisme yang digagas oleh Jhon Dewey pada awal abad 20-an yang menekankan pada pengembangan siswa.

Menurut Zahorik, ada lima elemen yang harus diperhatikan dalam praktek pembelajaran kontektual.
a )Pengaktifan pengetahuan yang sudah ada (activating learning)
b) Pemerolehan pemngetahuan yang sudah ada (acquiring knowledge) dengan cara mempelajari secara keseluruhan dulu, kemudian memperhatikan detailnya.
c) Pemahaman pengetahuan (understanding knowledge), yaitu dengan cara menyusun (1) hipotesis (2) melakukan sharing kepada orang lain agar mendapat tanggapan (validasi) dan atas dasar tanggapan itu (3) konsep tersebut direvisi dan dikembangkan
d) Mempraktekkan pengetahuan dan pengalaman tersebut (applaying knowledge)
e) Melakukan refleksi (reflecting knowledge) terhadap strategi pengetahuan tersebut